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Cognition can be broadly
defined as mental performance, which itself is not monolithic but constitutes a
number of distinctive abilities relating to the acquisition of knowledge and
understanding. Intelligence, in turn, can be taken to mean the acquisition and
application of such abilities. This of course leaves sufficient room for
interpretation dependent upon the socio-cultural context and the weight you
ascribe to its genetic component (or lack thereof) (Sternberg and Griggorenko,
2004; Hill et al., 2018). However, common amongst cultures and belief systems
with respect to intelligence has been the remarkably dogged determination to
reduce human beings to immutable scores and labels, such as IQ.With a laudable
degree of acerbity, the author sidesteps this minefield of posturing at the
outset, accepting that intelligence is at least partly dictated by genes, and
that IQ scores, despite their reductionist tendencies, do seem to be a
“reliable proxy for what most of us would consider to be intelligence.” What
follows is a thoroughly entertaining journey of discovery, as the author puts a
regime of cognitive enhancement to the test, attempting to cheat his way into
the priggish smart club, Mensa (which incidentally is Mexican slang for “stupid
woman”).The author regularly strays into a number of illustrative anecdotes
which serve to give an entertaining grounding in the history of intelligence as
a concept. Of particular note is the story of Walt Whitman, who donated his
brain to the American Anthropometric Society (a so-called “brain club”
dedicated to studying the brains of clever people) who, upon his death,
subsequently dropped it.Before he could embark on his experiment of
self-enhancement, the author sat the Mensa exam in order to determine his
baseline IQ. Rather anti-climactically, he passed the first time, leaving him
with no other option than to aim to improve his score. Leaving a year before
the second attempt in order to counteract any effects of repetition bias proved
to be a convenient amount of time to experiment with a number of enhancement
technologies. Time which, it became clear, is necessary if one were to need to,
for example: find a lab willing to verify the contents of your black market
drugs order, track down someone willing to let you use their DIY brain
stimulation headset made from an American Football helmet and some batteries,
or gather enough data points to make a robust assessment of the influence of
Modafinil upon unforced errors in a weekly squash fixture. Fifteen months
later, bolstered by some pills and a $55 electric stimulator, the author was
indeed able to boost his Mensa scores. Helpfully concluding that his experiment
was “not scientific” and “generated no reliable data,” he turned his gaze back
toward the ethical arena.Societal attitudes toward cognitive enhancement
largely reflect perceptions of safety, alongside some form of subjective
utility. A proponent of enhancement could make the case that it is a lifestyle
choice, akin to smoking, whereby someone chooses to do something with known
negative consequences. However, without an understanding of the mechanisms and potential
side-effects of a given enhancer, it is difficult to set an ethical baseline,
nor indeed establish their true efficacy. This fact is certainly not helped by
the popularization of simplistic conceptualizations (for example, linking
single neurotransmitters to single cognitive functions) which misrepresent the
complexity of the neuronal and behavioral mechanisms involved (Husain and
Mehta, 2011). With respect to currently licensed nootropics, given that they
are effective for a number of people (with side effects that are sufficiently
negligible as to legitimize their prescription) at least some of them are sure
to be effective for at least some healthy people. Increasing public acceptance
will no doubt bolster the resolve of pharmaceutical companies that have, until
now, been far too squeamish to broach cosmetic neuroscience.Therefore, a
careful balance must be struck in order to avoid one of two scenarios. Firstly,
an unfounded superstition of cognitive enhancers engendered by premature
legislation acting to prohibit their use, inevitably resulting in an entrenched
black market and the continued failure to control their use; or secondly, a new
flavor of social stratification, characterized by one's access to cognitive
enhancers, as the result of a laissez-faire approach to regulation. Sadly, the
quixotic view of a super-smart, super-egalitarian society founded upon the
universal distribution of smart pills doesn't seem the most likely outcome.
With this in mind, scientists and physicians must drive legislators—both to
dispel myths,
but also to encourage proper discourse.As the author puts it: “it
may be too early to provide answers… [with respect to the use of cognitive
enhancers] but it is not too early to ask the questions.” “The Genius Within”
is a rigorous and entertaining jaunt through cosmetic neuroscience, brimming
with sarcasm, which effectively highlights the mounting requirement for
research funding and considered legislation with respect to the effects of
cognitive enhancement upon society.The science behind the 15 most common smart
drugsMore photos from this reportage are featured in Quartz’s new book The
Objects that Power the Global Economy. You may not have seen these objects
before, but they’ve already changed the way you live. Each chapter examines an
object that is driving radical change in the global economy. This is from the
chapter on the drug modafinil, which explores modifying the mind for a more
productive life. Not all drug users are searching for a chemical escape hatch.
A newer and increasingly normalized drug culture is all about heightening one’s
current relationship to reality—whether at work or school—by boosting the
brain’s ability to think under stress, stay alert and productive for long
hours, and keep track of large amounts of information. In the name of becoming
sharper traders, medical interns, or coders, people are taking pills typically
prescribed for conditions including ADHD, narcolepsy, and Alzheimer’s. Others
down “stacks” of special “nootropic” supplements.For obvious reasons, it’s
difficult for researchers to know just how common the “smart drug” or
“neuro-enhancing” lifestyle is. However, a few recent studies suggest cognition
hacking is appealing to a growing number of people. A survey conducted in 2016
found that 15% of University of Oxford students were popping pills to stay
competitive, a rate that mirrored findings from other national surveys of UK
university students. In the US, a 2014 study found that 18% of sophomores,
juniors, and seniors at Ivy League colleges had knowingly used a stimulant at
least once during their academic career, and among those who had ever used
uppers, 24% said they had popped a little helper on eight or more occasions.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that pharmacological enhancement is also on the
rise within the workplace, where modafinil, which treats sleep disorders, has
become particularly popular.Amphetamine and dextroamphetamine (Adderall)Why
brain hackers use it:The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
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